Today's entry was supposed to be posted yesterday, but we're still trying to determine the optimal settings for the new server, so it ended up crashing again last night. It shouldn't be too much longer before things are back to being stable, though.

I briefly spoke to the Vancouver Rhododendron Society last night about some of my trips to the Siskiyous, so while working through the images for that presentation, I pulled this one for BPotD today.

My inclination is to call this Jeffrey pine, but other common names are also in use, including bull pine and sapwood pine. This is primarily a California species, but it can also be found in the Siskiyous area of southwest Oregon and northern Baja California. As noted in the link, "Jeffrey pine often dominates and is almost entirely restricted to soils derived from ultramafic rocks- peridotites and their alteration products, serpentinites", and this is indeed the case in the Siskiyous, where the presence of Jeffrey pine indicates serpentine soils. In non-serpentine soils nearby, the similar Pinus ponderosa grows instead.

Commercially, the two species of pine are treated as indistinct, but there are biological differences. Some of these are summarized in the Wikipedia article on Pinus jeffreyi, such as Pinus jeffreyi having overall larger cones with inward-pointing barbs and needles that are glaucous (having a whitish to bluish waxy or powdery coating, such that the colour appears muted). Naturally-occurring hybrids between the two species are rare, in part because of the different times of pollen production and reception: in areas where the two species overlap, Pinus ponderosa releases/receives pollen 4-6 (-8?) weeks prior to Pinus jeffreyi. Wood chemistry is also different with respect to presence / absence of certain monoterpenes; n-heptane, n-nonane, and n-undecane are present in Pinus jeffreyi and seemingly absent in ponderosa pine (see: Anderson, AB, et al.. 1969. Monoterpenes, fatty and resin acids of Pinus ponderosa and Pinus jeffreyi. Phytochemistry. 8(5): 873-875.).

Conifers.org, as always, has excellent additional reading about conifer species: Pinus jeffreyi, and Calphotos has additional images: Pinus jeffreyi.

A note for local readers: I'll be speaking on Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia on Monday @ noon -- one of my favourite visual presentations.

Botany / gardening resource link: Florida's Native Wildflowers from the Florida Wildflower Foundation was recently launched, containing a weblog, a bloom map, a section on growing Florida wildflowers and much more. Definitely worth a peek and the bloom map is something to keep in mind if you plan to travel around the state.

Though I'm responsible for the photograph of these old-growth western red-cedars, the image wouldn't have been possible without the efforts of the many people involved in preserving this area. Large individuals of Thuja plicata are (or were) common along the coastal rainforests of western North America, but the exceptional trees in today's image occur in a special environment: the inland wet-temperate rainforest of British Columbia.

Knowing that my route to Jasper National Park from Prince George would pass this particular site, my hosts in Prince George assertively suggested I visit the Ancient Forest Trail. I was not disappointed! This area is part of the only temperate rainforest in the world found at a distance of 400-600km (250-375 miles) from the nearest ocean -- and the only rainforest in the world with a majority of its precipitation from snow (perhaps it is a snowforest?). Despite hot, dry summers and long winters, the western red-cedars of this region have been able to attain significant size due to a high subsurface water table and protection from fire. The groundwater constantly flows throughout the dry summer by the melting snow pack from nearby high mountain slopes.

High humidity from near-surface water and an enclosed canopy contribute to extensive lichen diversity. In the Incomappleux River Valley (about 400km to the southeast), another section of the inland wet-temperate rainforest yielded nine species of lichen new to science, three not previously known in North America and an additional three not previously known from British Columbia. Lichenologist Toby Spribille proclaimed: "This is by far the longest list of lichen diversity ever published in western North America for an area of comparable size...Such levels of lichen diversity and rates of discovery of new species are basically unparalleled in northern conifer forests -- even in coastal temperate rainforest" (quoted from The Incomappleux Discoveries (PDF) in Menziesia, the Native Plant Society of BC's newsletter, October 2007, Volume 12(3)).

Unfortunately, these highly biodiverse and scientifically-intriguing forests remain under threat: as an example from one region, of the 9482 ha (23 430 acres) identified very-old wet forests of the Upper Fraser River landscape (including the area featured by today's image), only 356 ha (880 acres) are protected within provincial parks.

For additional photographs from this trail, see Ancient Forest Trail Pics.

Continuing with the "Plant Biodiversity of China" series, here is a species we grow in UBC Botanical Garden. The first photograph is from 2002 or 2003, while the second was taken in January 2005 (I've added it for those of us currently experiencing summer conditions). The write-up for today's entry is again courtesy of one of the students from Dr. David Brownstein's "Research in Environmental Geography" course, Eva Lillquist. A thank you to Eva for the work. Eva writes:

Metasequoia glyptostroboides (common name dawn redwood) is an ancient tree species that once existed in abundance worldwide. Due to glaciation, almost all Metasequoia were killed, with the exception of a few populations in a restricted area of central China. First discovered in the early 1940s, scientists Dr. Wanchun Cheng and Dr. Hsenhsu Hu later uncovered plants growing in several sites in the Sichuan, Hubei and Hunan regions of central China. Prior to the discovery of living trees, Metasequoia was thought to be extinct, as it had only ever been encountered in fossilized form. As it was once nominated to be China's national tree, Metasequoia glyptostroboides holds significance to the national identity of China.

In 1980, the Chinese Government deemed the Metasequoia glyptostroboides to be critically endangered in the wild (although the species has been cultivated in roughly 50 countries). Estimates suggest there are currently only 5,400 trees still living in central China.

Efforts for conservation have been concentrated within Hubei, where the largest number of dawn redwoods reside. Conservation efforts, however, face challenges: due to population growth and an increased need for land development, habitat loss is a significant threat (particularly from rice cultivation). Another hurdle for conservation is the considerable debate about why Metasequoia glyptostroboides is endangered. While conservationists argue that the species has reached near extinction due to human disturbance, others, particularly those employed in the logging and wood harvesting industries, argue that numbers of trees are declining due to natural causes, creating a rationale that does not support the future conservation of the species.

Currently, the Chinese government has made significant efforts to address immediate conservation problems through policy work and the creation of protected wilderness areas. However, due to conflicting views about the use of land, and the use of Metasequoia wood for construction, the government must now focus on gathering greater support from different parties, including non-governmental organizations, stakeholders, and the public to generate awareness about threats to the species, the tree's significance to science, biodiversity, and national identity, and how these issues link with local industrial practices.

This month's biodiversity theme at UBC Botanical Garden is the "Biodiversity of China", so we'll begin a week-long series on plants from that floristically-rich part of the world.

Today's photograph is courtesy of my colleague, Eric La Fountaine. The write-up for today's entry is largely based on the student work of Adam Underhill, who participated in Dr. David Brownstein's Geography 419 course here at UBC, "Research in Environmental Geography". Thank you to Adam and Eric for sharing! Adam writes:

The common English name of this species is Forrest hemlock; the name given to the species by local Chinese residents is lijiang tieshan. Tsuga forrestii is a tree species in the Pinaceae located solely in China. The species is found in three southwestern Chinese provinces: Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan. These areas of China all have relatively moist climates. Tsuga forrestii often dominates its forest stands, although these stands are few and far between.The species is threatened by a significant increase in habitat loss, particularly due to logging.

Tsuga forrestii is described as an evergreen conifer, with flattened needles and silvery white bands beneath the leading shoots. It can grow to 25m (80ft). The bark is grey to brown, scaly and often deeply furrowed, purportedly to protect the plant from predatory birds and insects. The branches are arranged in a flattened pattern, "spraying" outward from the trunk with a slight arch downward. Cones are borne on year-old twigs and seed cones take roughly one year to mature. After maturation, the seeds fall to the ground where they may persist for several years before sprouting. The wood of this species is moderately strong, pliable and lacks resin ducts, making it a candidate for the logging industry. The decline of similar species considered to be of more commercial value in the logging industry has lead timber corporations in pursuit of a new species to fill the void. The most popular use of hemlock wood is in the pulp industry.

There is a very clear and defined relationship between this species and humans. The main threat to this species results directly from human action in terms of logging, manufacturing and urbanization. A study undertaken in the Yunnan province found that there was a significant destruction of biodiversity caused by a loss of habitat due to increased levels of logging. It was determined that, in this particular region, there was a cutting volume of 40 million m³, despite government regulations of 3 million m³ in 1998 and 0.83 million m³ in 2000 (Yang 2004). This significant amount of clearcut logging, coupled with ignoring government regulations, not only removes species from the region but destroys the habitat in which they grow. After this clearcutting takes place, the previous forest is often not given the opportunity to replenish itself. The area is subsequently used for growing cash crops such as rubber, sugar cane and tropical fruits. Another impact of logging is the pollution left behind, from machinery and equipment, that may damage the soil and water table, further restricting a livable area for this species. These factors have led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to classify this species as vulnerable to extinction.

It is clear that measures need to be taken in order to mitigate further problems and preserve this species. The first step necessary for preservation is to strengthen policies on biodiversity conservation as well strict monitoring on logging practices in areas with vulnerable species. The creation of a species database for the region would also be very beneficial as it would allow for proper monitoring of not just Tsuga forrestii, but other vulnerable species in the area. A species database should coincide, in order to be most effective, with a protected area of forest where any human interference, such as logging or farming, is illegal (Yang 2004). The surrounding community also needs to be aware at the local level of the importance of preserving this species; this can be accomplished through various education and advertising programs. The final step in order to mitigate the effects of habitat loss is continued growth of this species is conservation areas whether it be in situ (in the wild) or ex situ. Ex situ sites are important because seeds can be easily gathered, and, if necessary, used to repopulate the wild species (Yang 2004). By growing Tsuga forrestii in various botanical gardens across the world such as UBC, it helps to ensure the species has a fighting chance against extinction.

Today's photo and write-up are from Eric La Fountaine.

Picea wilsonii or Wilson's spruce is endemic to north and central China. It can grow to 50 metres and forms a pyramid shaped crown. In China the trees are used in forestation projects and cultivated for timber. Picea wilsonii makes a good ornamental planting. It is a hardy dense evergreen tree with fine foliage.

I was initially attracted to the bright green buds and reddish immature male cones seen in the first photo, but when I made the treck to the other side of the tree (the tree is actually planted outside the garden and I had to go around a fence) I found the rich reddish-purple seed cones forming, shown in the second photo. Beautiful, but the description in the Flora of China indicates, "Seed cones green, maturing yellow-brown or pale brown…" Several specimens of this accession grown from a lot of seed collected in the wild in Sichuan grow in the David C. Lam Asian Garden. I questioned Douglas Justice, Curator of Collections about this cone colouration and we went out to investigate. Cones on the other plants ranged from green barely tinted red to mixed green and purple, shown in the third and fourth photos. These cones are just forming and I believe they will mature to the usual pale green and brown later in the season.

The series for UBC's Celebrate Research Week continues today with an entry from Dr. Brian Klinkenberg today's photograph by him via Flickr) and graduate student Claire Wooten. Lindsay writes the introduction:

Dr. Brian Klinkenberg is a professor in the UBC Department of Geography where his research focuses on advanced spatial analysis with respect to physical, health and social sciences (and the intersection of these disciplines). Dr. Klinkenberg is also the editor and project coordinator of E-Flora BC / E-Fauna BC.

Dr. Klinkenberg writes: Understanding the spatial aspects of plant dynamics is a critical part of landscape ecology today. Recently in my lab our focus on spatial analysis has led us to explore the decline of yellow-cedar in BC (see gallery link at bottom of page). Exploring the spatial occurrences on these species in the landscape has led to key insights into distributions and biogeographic changes.

Claire Wooten (graduate student) and Dr. Klinkenberg co-wrote the following about yellow-cedar die-off:

For over two decades, the phenomenon of yellow-cedar decline has perplexed researchers. Yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) (D. Don) Spach), which ranges from southern Oregon to Prince William Sound, Alaska, was known to be declining on over 200,000 ha of undisturbed forest in southeast Alaska (Snyder et al. 2008). During an aerial survey in 2004, numerous large areas of dead and dying yellow-cedar were found in coastal locations in B.C., and the nature of the dieback was found to be consistent with the phenomenon in southeast Alaska (Hennon et al. 2005).

Research into the decline of this long-lived species began in the early 1980s and a sequence of symptoms was identified. The initial symptom was determined to be fine root death, followed by death of small-diameter roots (Hennon et al. 2006) (PDF). As the roots start to die, the trees develop thin off-colour crowns and necrotic lesions spread from larger roots up the bole (Hennon et al. 2006). The natural resistance of yellow cedar heartwood to decay allows dead trees to remain standing for 80 to 100 years after death. By examining the standing snags it was possible to establish that the decline of yellow-cedars began in about 1880-1900 (Hennon & Shaw, 1997).

Investigations initially focused on finding a biotic cause of the decline, but one by one the suspected agents were ruled out (Hennon et al. 1990). Attention then shifted to abiotic factors potentially associated with the decline--an association with wet, poorly drained soils was found. However the relationship with soil drainage is inconsistent, with limited decline occurring on wet sites at higher elevations (Hennon et al. 2006). Air and soil temperature were determined to be stronger risk factors than poorly drained soils (D'Amore & Hennon, 2006).

These clues led researchers to propose a new, complex hypothesis to explain yellow-cedar decline. According to Hennon et al. (2006), saturated soils create open, exposed canopies which experience soil warming early in the spring. This warming triggers the yellow-cedars to lose their cold tolerance, making them more susceptible to freezing injury. Snow appears to protect yellow-cedar against this freezing injury by preventing soil warming. However, the end of the Little Ice Age, which coincided with the onset of decline, has led to a reduction in snowpack at lower elevations (Hennon et al. 2006). This shift in climate may represent the environmental trigger responsible for the decline and suggests that the dieback may expand if warming trends continue (Hennon et al. 2006).

Our research questions are being addressed through a combination of remote sensing and GIS techniques. Spatial patterns of biophysical factors (e.g. elevation, slope, aspect) are being used in our assessment of the relations between the distribution of decline and the environmental predictors.

The high value of yellow-cedar wood and the desire to conserve species diversity means that a management strategy incorporating the influence of a warming climate is required. Ultimately, this research may provide insight into the devastating effects that climate change can have on a forest ecosystem.

Dr. Klinkenberg also adds an additional note regarding the name of this species:

There has been much debate over the taxonomic status of yellow-cedar following the discovery of a closely related tree species in northern Vietnam, Xanthocyparis vietnamensis Farjon & Hiep. Whether yellow-cedar is transferred to this newly established genus as Xanthocyparis nootkatensis or the older Callitropsis nootkatensis (D.Don) Örest name is adopted, will be determined at the next International Botanical Congress in 2011 (Mill & Farjon, 2006).

References

D'Amore, D. and Hennon, P.E. 2006. Evaluation of soil saturation, soil chemistry, and early spring soil and air temperatures as risk factors in yellow-cedar decline. Global Change Biology. 12: 524-545

Hennon, P.E., D'Amore, D., Wittwer, D., Johnson, A., Schaberg, P., Hawley, G., Beier, C., Sink, S. and Juday, G. 2006. Climate warming, reduced snow, and freezing injury could explain the demise of yellow-cedar in southeast Alaska, USA. World Resource Review. 18(2): 427-450.

Hennon, P.E., D'Amore, D., Zeglen, S. and Grainger, M. 2005. Yellow-cedar decline in the North Coast Forest District of British Columbia. Res. Note RN-549. Portland, OR: U.S. Dep. Agric., Pacific Northwest Research Station. pp.20.

Hennon, P.E. and Shaw, C.G. III. 1997. The enigma of yellow-cedar decline - What is killing these long-lived, defensive trees? Journal of Forestry. 95(12): 4-10.

Mill, R. R. And Farjon, A. 2006. Proposal to conserve the name Xanthocyparis against Callitropsis Oerst. (Cupressaceeae). Taxon. 55(1): 229-231.

Snyder, C., Schultz, M.E. and Lundquist, J. (Compilers) 2008. Forest health conditions in Alaska - 2007: a forest health protection report. Gen. Tech. Rep. R10-PR-18. Anchorage, AL: U.S. Dep. Agric., Forest Service, Alaska Region.

Conifers haven't been receiving many entries lately on BPotD, so time to change that.

These photographs were taken in early summer near Port Renfrew, British Columbia. Both are of the same species, Picea sitchensis or Sitka spruce, previously featured on BPotD several years ago: Picea sitchensis.

The dwarfed spruce, growing on the end of the submerged log, is subject to fairly harsh conditions beyond the obvious one of trying to extract much of the needed nutrients from decaying wood. If I recall correctly from the conversation I had with one of the locals, Fairy Lake (where this is located) is occasionally subject to an influx of salt water from the ocean. The same local also commented that this tree is at least 40-50 years old, as he remembers it growing there -- and of a similar size -- when he was a child over twenty years ago. I plan on revisiting this particular plant in the future, to hopefully photograph it with a still lake surface.

The other spruce, growing about 15 or so km away, is known as the San Juan Sitka spruce. It is claimed by some to be Canada's largest spruce tree and the second largest in the world (another photograph of it shared in that link). I'm not so sure about that claim, as British Columbia's Big Tree Registry (PDF) suggests that BC has Sitka spruce trees that are larger in circumference, taller, more spreading, and (when combining all three of these measures in a points system), "bigger". The only measure I could see where it may earn the title of Canada's largest spruce tree is in volume of wood. Whatever status it may or may not be entitled to, it is still an impressive individual, measuring 62.5m high (205 feet), 11.66m circumference (36 feet, 3 inches), and a spread of 23m (75 feet). Still, it was only the second-largest tree I encountered that day.

Douglas Justice wrote today's entry. I took the photos of the tree, recently planted at the garden's front entrance. The first image shows a side branch photographed to show the new growth. The second shows a small male cone.

Wollemia, previously known from fossils as old as 90 million years and thought to be extinct for at least 2 million years, was discovered alive in a rainforest grove in the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, Australia, in 1994, by David Noble, a field officer of the Wollemi National Park. The discovery caused tremendous excitement and fanfare in the scientific community. While we can never be entirely certain of the identification of fossil species, pollen and leaf studies show that Wollemia nobilis (Wollemi pine) and the fossil Wollemia are close relatives, if not the very same species. Read more about this tree here.

Fewer than 100 mature individuals of Wollemia nobilis exist in the wild—an additional two small groves have been identified since the original discovery—making this one of the rarest and most endangered trees in the world, but conservation work, funded primarily through sales of propagated trees, has helped to ensure the species' survival.

The tree pictured, “Little Billy,” is a first descendant propagation of the “Bill Tree,” the tallest of the Wollemis in the original grove. The species has been through plenty: from dinosaur browsing to multiple ice ages and extended periods of drought. We're confident that with limited winter protection, it should be able to survive here.

It's a Monday, and Jackie's shared another photograph and write-up with us. Thanks again! Jackie writes:

Young specimens of Pinus bungeana have smooth bark that peels off in round patches resulting in a beautiful mosaic of colours, giving rise to the common name of lacebark pine. The patches can range in colour from creamy white and grey-green, to brighter shades of red, yellow and brown. With age, the bark takes on a more uniform, chalky-white colour (here's an excellent photograph of the bark).

The tree is slow growing and can reach about 20m in height. It is multi-stemmed and can grow almost as wide as it is tall, an unusual shape for a pine tree.

Its green needles are stiffer than many other members of the Pinaceae. Needles are held in sparse clusters of three, each tipped with a sharp point. When crushed, the foliage gives off a distinctive scent sometimes compared to turpentine. The cone of Pinus bungeana is slightly egg-shaped, yellow-brown in color, and approximately 7cm long. Each scale of the cone is tipped with a sharp spine. Virginia Tech's factsheet on Pinus bungeana contains pictures of the needles, cones and bark, while Kew has a good description of the species and a larger photograph of the tree: Pinus bungeana.

Pinus bungeana is native to northern China, where it is found growing on steep mountain slopes in the shade. It has been cultivated for centuries in China, often planted near temples. Lacebark pine was introduced into cultivation in Europe by Robert Fortune in the 1840s. Fortune was a Scottish plant hunter who spent several years collecting plants in China.

Ruth continues with the series on UBC research:

Dr. Sally Aitken is a member of the UBC Faculty of Forestry. She heads many research initiatives through the Centre for Forest Conservation Genetics.

Sally writes: "Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) is a keystone species of many high-elevation environments in British Columbia and the western United States. The wingless seeds of this pine are dispersed by the Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), and these seeds are also a key pre-hibernation food for grizzly bears in some regions. Populations of this five-needled pine are being decimated by a combination of the introduced fungus, Cronartium ribicola, which causes the disease whitebark pine blister rust, as well as the current epidemic of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae). Rapid climate change presents yet another threat to this species."

"At the Centre for Forest Conservation Genetics in Forest Sciences at UBC, we are evaluating levels of genetic diversity and developing models to predict the distribution of habitat for this species under various climate change scenarios. PhD candidate Sierra Curtis-McLane is testing these predictions by planting seeds in subalpine habitats within the current species range and in model-predicted areas north of the range. She is also growing seedlings in controlled growth chamber experiments under different temperature and drought regimes. We hope the results will assist in restoration efforts for this ecologically important species."

Abies religiosa is native to southern Mexico and western Guatemala at high altitudes: 2100m to 4100m (or thereabouts). According to the Gymnosperm Database entry for Abies religiosa, its common name of sacred fir is due to "its widespread use in Mexico to create decorations for use at religious festivals, especially Christmas", though others have suggested it is because the tips of the branches form a cross. The common name of oyamel fir tends to be more widely-used in popular texts about the species, particularly with regard to its ecology and its relationship with the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus.

The oyamel fir forests of Mexico are the wintering grounds for the monarchs of eastern North America, where the insects can be found in densities of 10 million individuals / hectare (4 million individuals / acre). While the species Abies religiosa itself is in no conservation danger, deforestation (ranging from illegal clearcut logging to thinning of trees -- see this documentary on illegal logging near the monarch reserves) is altering the ecological conditions of the oyamel fir forest such that the monarchs may one day no longer find suitable wintering habitat. Journey North explains the ecological requirements of the wintering monarchs in point form: The Monarch's Forest Ecosystem: Mexico's Oyamel Fir Forest. Simply put, deforestation is changing the humidity and temperature regime of the forest, such that the monarchs will not be able to meet their physiological requirements for wintertime survival.

You can learn more about monarch butterflies from these valuable sites: MonarchLIVE, the monarch butterfly page from Canadian Biodiversity (discusses threats and monarch migration) and Monarch Watch (blog) (these great folks also could use a little bit of financial help, if you're so inclined).

Ah, one last thing -- I apologize about the quality of the photographs. I forgot my polarizing filter for this trek to see the butterflies so the photographs have a lot of glare. I also wish I could've taken better photographs of the firs, but the butterflies kept getting in the way. Perhaps these videos I took will make up for it (one thing to note in the videos -- what appear to be solid masses of black shaded foliage are actually clusters of butterflies resting on the branches):

Today's entry is courtesy of Hannah Bottomley from Simon Fraser University, who has recently co-authored a paper on today's subjects. We've Hannah to thank for the write-up and thermographic images and Stephen Takács for the conventional photographs. Hannah writes:

Pinus monticola (western white pine) cones glow warmly in contrast to cool conifer needles in the infrared spectrum (top right; bottom left). Cones can be up to 15˚C warmer than needles (as indicated by the temperature bar on the right) and emit significantly stronger infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that the human eye is unable to perceive; it has longer wavelengths than visible light (380-750 nanometres), but shorter wavelengths than microwaves (1 millimetre to 1 metre).

These thermographic images of Pinus monticola cones were taken with an infrared camera, exposing a previously unknown way in which insects are able to hone in on their host plant. Recent research by Takács and his colleagues reveals that Leptoglossus occidentalis (western conifer seed bug) has infrared receptors and is able to exploit the difference between cones and needles in the infrared spectrum, and zero in on cone-laden conifers from afar. This insect is a specialist herbivore that feeds on the contents of developing conifer seeds; in the second photo, it can be seen feeding on a Pinus monticola cone.

This phenomenon of warm cones is not limited to Pinus monticola - it has also been observed in Pinus contorta var. latifolia (lodgepole pine), Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce) and Larix occidentalis (western larch). It is attributed in part to the fact that larger objects retain more heat than smaller objects, as well as to the tendency of a cone's surface to reflect solar radiation. In all likelihood, seed development (and associated metabolic activity) is also generating warmth, contributing to the relatively high temperature of conifer cones.

Although there are a few recognized infrared-detecting insects, this is the first study to show that herbivorous insects are using infrared emission from a specific part of a live plant as a foraging cue. This research is yet another testament to the complexity of plant-insect interactions and reminds us that there is a world of nature that exists beyond our own perception.

Daniel adds: For a popular summary of the paper, see "Heat Sensors Guide Insects to a Hot Meal" from ScienceNews. To view the scientific paper, see: Takács, S. et al. 2008. Infrared radiation from hot cones on cool conifers attracts seed-feeding insects. Proceedings of The Royal Society B. 276(1657):649-655. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0742. For those of you who are particularly keen, I note that mast-seeding is mentioned in the abstract as a hypothesized method of producing a cone-crop large enough to exceed the capabilities of the insect herbivores to eat them all.

Horticulture / Garden Design link: Les jardins de Quatre-Vents, a garden I first learned about yesterday from the guide (thank you, Luana!) at Montréal Botanical Garden. Here are some photographs of the landscape and the plants. Virtual tours (in English) are available here: Virtual Tours of Les jardins de Quatre-Vents.

BPotD has previously featured Engelmann spruce; that entry already has a few great links, so trek on over there for further reading.

This photograph was taken in Mistaya Canyon (Banff National Park). I was intrigued by both the colour of the canyon backdrop and the tenacity of the tree. It's worth pointing out (as I have in entries in previous years) that this is likely the area where I felt the least safe while taking photographs in 2008 -- I trekked out onto the rock cliffs forming the canyon (or overhanging the canyon), much like the ones you can see in this image. I suppose it's a bit of a fear of heights, heightened somewhat by the loss of the sense of hearing due to the noise of the water coursing below.

Thanks again to Ruth for today's write-up:

A living fossil found in Australia! The genus Wollemia was only known to scientists as a fossil until 1994, when David Noble, a hiker and officer of Wollemi National Park, discovered a grove of Wollemi pines nestled in a sandstone gorge in the Blue Mountains of eastern Australia. Amazingly, this gorge is only 150 km from Sydney, Australia! Fewer than 100 individuals were discovered.

Since the discovery of Wollemia nobilis, seeds have been collected and plants grown with the intent to release the plant into cultivation and thus distribute it widely to ensure the survival of the species. You too can be a part of this extraordinary conservation project (if interested just type "Wollemi pine" into any search engine to find vendors).

As a member of the Auracariaceae, the Wollemi pine is not actually a pine at all, but rather a close relative of the monkey-puzzle (Araucaria araucana) and kauri (Agathis spp.). Wollemia, Agathis and Araucaria are the only three remaining genera of this ancient family (unless a new discovery changes things again!). The fossil record dates the Araucariaceae back to the Jurassic period (approximately 200 Ma ago) where it reached its peak diversity and existed nearly worldwide. The Wollemi pine is dated back to the Cretaceous period (approximately 140 Ma ago) from the fossil record. Along with the passing of the dinosaurs, the Araucariaceae vanished from the northern hemisphere and members of the family are now found in only the southern hemisphere unless cultivated. Wollemi pines have a wild habit of growth. They often have multiple trunks making them bushy but will grow to 40 meters (130 feet) in the wild. In cultivation, one can expect a much shorter height.

The photo accompanying this article is of the male cone from a Wollemi nobilis in the UBC Botanical Garden collections. This plant is under quarantine until mid-2009 as it was imported with soil. UBC Botanical Garden received this plant via Dr. Susan Murch -- it is grown from one of the original cuttings of the oldest living Wollemi pine, "King Billy". Daniel Mosquin took this exquisite photograph, Thanks Daniel!

Ruth is again responsible for today's write-up:

In keeping with our gymnosperm theme, it is appropriate to mention that the oldest-living known organism is a gymnosperm, an approximately 4,789 years old individual of the species Pinus longaeva. It has been named "Methuselah" after the oldest living person in the Bible. Methuselah resides in the White Mountains of California. Pinus longaeva is one of three pine species in a group called the bristlecone pines: Pinus longaeva, Pinus aristata and Pinus balfouriana.

Today's photos are of Pinus aristata, also known as the Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine. It is found in Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. Douglas Justice, the acting director of UBC Botanical Garden, took these pictures in the Mount Goliath Natural Area of Colorado. Thanks Douglas! These trees were growing at an altitude of 3300m (11000 ft), within the typical elevation where Pinus aristata can be found: 2500-3700 meters (8,000-12,000 feet). As you can imagine, these are cold, dry, subalpine conditions at or near tree-line.

One critical step in identifying any pine is to count the number of needles per fascicle (the fascicle is the tissue that holds needles together at the base of a cluster). This species maintains five stout needles per fascicle, and, unlike the other bristlecone pines, it typically has only one resin canal. According to the Wikipedia article on Rocy Mountains bristlecone pine, the resin canals are "commonly interrupted and broken...which looks a bit like 'dandruff' on the needles."

Unlike Pinus longaeva, Pinus aristata rarely lives over 1,500 years. The oldest individual of Pinus aristata was found to be 2,435 years old growing on Mount Evans in Colorado. If you ever venture out to visit any of the three bristlecone pine species, take note that although they might be sparsely foliated, they are still alive. Often they will have only a thin strip of live tissue running along the gnarled tortured trunk connecting the leaves to the roots. These phenomenal trees have a strong dense and resinous wood that develops very slowly and defends the trees from pests. The Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine can be found in cultivation and makes a decent slow-growing tree for the home garden.